Maimonides: On Creation Essay

Creation is a metaphysical attribute attached by Philosophers to the notion of God. With regard to Maimonides’ interpretation, he regarded Creation as something created by God out of nothing or ‘ex nihilo’. He argues that Creation is something that can be proven through philosophy however, philosophy alone cannot explain creation out of nothing and thus, there is a need to rely on Torah (Trepp, 2000). Nonetheless, the whole discussion of Maimonides on the topic of creation in his book ‘Guide for the Perplexed’, he cautioned the readers to ‘expect some ambiguities and deceptions at worst (Rudavsky, 2000)’. Thus, several interpretation of Maimonides’ account of creation arise trying to decode whatever hidden message is preset in his writing. In the Guide for the Perplexed, Maimonides explicates three possible theory of creation; Platonic, Aristotelian and Mosaic. As he reiterated, at his conclusion on the chapter of creation, he stated that believing in the Mosaic interpretation is preferable and somehow practical; nonetheless, Plato’s account is also an option. This denotes that he is not in favour of the Aristotelian account. To see clearly the distinction, a brief overview of each account would be essential. The Mosaic interpretation holds that God created everything out of nothing or ‘ex nihilo’ (Dobbs-Weinstein, 1995). The Platonic version of creation put forwards the existence of something along with God in which God created everything. The last account, that of Aristotle believes that ‘the world is eternal and therefore necessitated out of God’s own nature or being’ (Dobbs-Weinstein, 1995). When Maimonides explained that the Platonic version is also an option, it undermines the fact that it is also possible. Nonetheless, Maimonides does not demonstrate or even thoroughly give explanation as to why Plato’s view is preferable; instead, he argued against Aristotelian view while defending the Mosaic view –only because it is according to prophecy. Due to the warning given by Maimonides, his exact view about creation is controversial. For the purpose of discussion, it is better to stick with the actual passage written in his book. In the Guide for the Perplexed, Maimonides point out that, the Aristotelian view would prove that miracles and the commandments are false or does not emanate from God. This is because creation as something eternal and a product of necessity removes God’s ability to choose freely (Dobbs-Weinstein, 1995). He argued against the assumption of Aristotelian philosophy that the world is something that is eternal by establishing the fact that God is something that is beyond human knowledge. Aristotelian argument of the world as eternal, rest on the assumption that creation is impossible because change is inherent in nature as well as change is impossible for something as perfect as God, thus everything is and always has been (Taffel, 2004). Maimonides asserts that the interpretation of what God has created could not lead to God’s real nature, as there is a difference between the account of origin and the account of change (Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy, 2008). For origin is creation initially, whatever is there before the initial creation is something that man could not know unless he could go back there and see it for himself (Pines and Yovel, 1985 ). The account of change which states that something precedes something else does not apply to God in the sense that what applies to the created does not necessarily applies to the creator. Creation, in Maimonides terms, seems to be ‘ex nihilo’ in nature or that of the Mosaic view. However, agreeing on Plato’s account that God created something from something is a contradictory of the first belief. Nonetheless, both beliefs represent God as something that can will as opposed to Aristotelian God who exists necessarily (Pines and Yovel, 1985). Since Maimonides warned for ambiguity, it could be ascertain that one ambiguity lies on his position about change, wherein he disagree that something comes from something as extrapolated from human experience yet he concluded that Plato’s account is also acceptable (Rudavsky, 2000). At the end, Maimonides concluded that the Mosaic view is the most preferable because he is faced with uncertainties himself. Works Cited: Dobbs-Weinstein, I. Maimonides and St. Thomas on the Limits of Reason. SUNY Press, 1995. Pines, S. and Yovel, Y. Maimonides and Philosophy. Papers Presented at the Sixth Jerusalem Philosophical Encounter, May, 1985. Rudavsky, T. Time Matters: Time, Creation, and Cosmology in Medieval Jewish Philosophy. SUNY Press, 2000. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Maimonides. 2008. Retrieved on November 7, 2008, from http://www. science. uva. nl/~seop/entries/maimonides/ Taffel, David. Introduction. The Guide for the Perplexed. By Maimonides. Barnes & Noble Publishing, 2004. Trepp, L. A History of the Jewish Experience: Eternal Faith, Eternal People. Behrman House, Inc, 2000.

The Prohibition Era and the Creation of NASCAR

NASCAR is the world famous acronym for â€Å"National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing.†NASCAR racing stands prominently in the front line of the American sports today. NASCAR is an authorizing body which arranges several types of racing all over the country the country. The most famous ones are Craftsman Truck Series, Sprint Cup Series and Nationwide Series.[1]AN OVERVIEWThe creation of NASCAR traces back its roots in history. The creation of NASCAR traces back to its roots deep in the history. It goes back to1794 almost a century before the first automobile came into being. It was the time of â€Å"Whiskey Rebellion†. This rebellion was actually a protest by frontier farmers against a federal tax levied on whiskey. Despite paying the tax they built secret stills, prepared and started supplying their product secretly.[2] There began the origin of NASCAR. In this paper this history is presented decade wise.Decade 1(1920-1933)On 16th January 1920 the â€Å"Volstead Act† was imposed all over United States. The manufacture, sale, export and import of alcohol were banned under this act.[3]In the Prohibition period of the 1920's and early 30's, the underground marketing of whiskey, or â€Å"moonshine running† began to rise. Moonshine is a primitive term in English for illegal transportation of liquor, and gradually gave birth to moonshine/ moonshine runners or rum runners. These moonshiners were commonly known as â€Å"Bootleggers†. These people who confidentially used to supply whiskey from their underground stills illegally to hundreds of markets all over the Southeast. Their t high speeds driving at night because of the risk of police encounter was quite dangerous. It gradually turned into race competitions between the bootleggers which usually resulted in lose of life or imprisonment.When bootlegging developed, the bootleggers started to race among themselves to check the speed of their cars. They used to have these races on Sunday afternoons and then the same car was used to smuggle moonshine at Sunday night. Unavoidably, these races and moonshine cars became extremely popular in general public. It even continued after the end of the prohibition era in 1933 on repeal of the Volstead Act.[4]Decade 2 (1938-1950):In 1938 William H.G. Bill France held a race on Daytona Beach, Florida and NASCAR came into being. With the beginning of World War II brought stock car racing came to an end but it again grew after the war but there were no appropriate rules and the proper organization. Soon Bill realized the importance of growth of stock car racing and consequently to start a formal official organization the National Association for Stock Car Auto  Racing (NASCAR) in 1947.In the supervision of Bill France Senior and afterwards his  son, Bill France  Junior NASCAR has turned into a rapidly growing  sport in the  1990s.The first race sanctioned by NASCAR held on the  beach course at  Daytona in Fe bruary 1948. The next year NASCAR  began the racing division of NASCAR called â€Å"Strictly  Stock† division,  now identified as the Winston Cup Series. The first race by â€Å"Strictly Stock† contributed a $5,000  purse and held  in southern Florida on a two-mile circular course followed by150-mile race at the three-quarter-mile Charlotte  Speedway. The first NASCAR race on newly made Darlington  International Speedway was held in 1959 in South Carolina.[5]The NASCAR is flourishing since then till todayCurrent DecadeAs compared to the last decade NAS CAR racing has achieved the fore front of spectator sports in America, both live and in television telecasts. â€Å"The Fiftieth Season† of NASCAR was celebrated I 1998 which received great public attendance and an immense coverage by the media which clearly shows the great development and popularity of NASCAR not only in United States but across the world s well.[6]ConclusionAfter going through the history of creation and growth of NASCAR, the link between the prohibition era in the United States and the creation of NASCAR has been vividly depicted. The role played by the bootleggers/ rumrunners/moonshiners is inevitable in the origin of NASCAR. Certain schools of thoughts in United States still assume them as heroes who fought against injustice and undue taxation no matter they were treated as criminals or smugglers. They believe that America was built by them.[7]Neal Thompson has written a book â€Å"Driving with the Devils† about the moonshiners. Charles Danoff reviews the book and says that people may find â€Å"Driving with the Devil†over sympathizing the southern bootleggers regardless the fact that they were criminals anyhow. But without this deep sympathy the story could never be told. The author treats Bill France as a dictator.Danoff is of the opinion that France family may tell this story in any manner they want, but its an undeniable fact that NASCAR did not came into being in 1940s as its website says. Its origin was conceived sometimes two decade earlier.[8]ReferencesRumrunners,Moonshiners,Bootleggers  Accessed March 10, 2008The Chicago Bootleggers: The Hollow Men of NASCAR from  Ã‚     Ã‚  http://www.chicagosportsreview.com/inthemeantime/contentview.asp?c=201755 Accessed March 10, 2008  The History of NASCAR  Accessed March 10, 2008What is NASCAR.About.com: Car Racinghttp://nascar.about.com/ Accessed March 10, 2008Ziewacz Lawrence E.The Country Music- NASCAR Connection. Country Music 2001, Charles K.Wolfe and James E. Akenson[1] What is NASCAR? About.com [2]The History of NASCAR [3] Rumrunners and Prohibition [4] The History of NASCAR [5] The History of NASCAR [6] The Country Music-NASCAR Connection [7] Rumrunners,Moonshiners,Bootleggers( http://www.history.com/index.jsp) [8] The Chicago Sports Review: Bootleggers: The Hollow Men of NASCAR

Body Image A Sociological Analysis Sociology Essay

Body Image A Sociological Analysis Sociology Essay The everyday lives of people living in the 21st century are pervaded by the media. Due to the huge rise in modern technology the pressure on individuals to conform to a certain body type is more intense than ever. Tiggemann (2002) claimed that the media puts severe pressure on woman of all ages to be a certain size, `Repeated exposure to such images may lead a woman to internalize the thin ideal such that it becomes accepted by them as the reference point against which to judge themselves (Tiggemann, 2002, P92)`. Unrealistic standards of what is considered â€Å"normal† in reference to body weight and appearance are constantly shown in the media. This portrayal of what is considered â€Å"normal† continues to become thinner and thinner. There is no surprise that the ongoing exposure to unrealistic ideas on what is said to be the ideal body shape for women within this media-driven culture has contributed to the current high levels of body dissatisfaction in females toda y. As schools include ‘healthy eating’ on the school curriculum and media images continue to reinforce the ideal of the slender women, young girls are becoming increasingly aware of the pressure to be slim (Fulcher & Scott, 2007:307). In The Sociological Imagination, C Wright Mills argues that ‘neither the life on an individual nor the history of society can be understood without understanding both’ (Mills, 1959:3). Throughout, keeping C. Wright Mills statement in mind, a sociological outlook on the everyday issue of body weight will be a central focus, examining how specific eating habits and behaviors came to be constructed. From this, social and cultural concepts will also contribute to a better understanding of how bodily processes and social structures are in many ways contributing to the development of disorders such as anorexia and bulimia. In modernity, the media represent a key cultural structure which influences eating behavior and in turn, what c onstitutes normal eating. According to Durkheim (1970), both cultural and social structures are external factors in society which have a constraining effect on the individual. In western society the media are responsible for spreading female body type ideals through the ‘glamorization of slenderness’ (Bordo, 1993: 103). In the 1950s the ideal female body type was a curvaceous, fuller figure (Fulcher & Scott, 2007: 307) as represented by Marilyn Monroe, one of the most photographed women of her time. As cultural ideals have changed, images of women portrayed in the media have become increasingly thinner. Furthermore, female body shape ideals are reinforced by advertisers who use slim models to sell products (Fulcher & Scott, 2007: 307). This leads to women comparing themselves with the cultural ideal and internalizing modern conceptions of femininity (Fulcher & Scott, 2007: 307). Therefore, women are becoming increasingly accustomed to altering their eating habits in ord er to achieve the cultural ideal of slenderness. One way women control their eating habits is through dieting, which involves the restriction of the amount and type of food consumed (Fulcher & Scott, 2007: 307), the steady increase in dieting over the past few decades is undoubtedly influenced by the pharmaceutical, cosmetic and fashion industries that emphasise the importance of dieting and healthy eating (Fulcher & Scott, 2007: 306). Furthermore, the media have a vital influence on the individual’s food choices (Ogden, 2010: 283). For example, in the summer of 1990 UK beef sales fell by 20% in response to widespread publicity about the health risks of beef (Ogden, 2010: 38). This demonstrates that the media can have a major effect on the food consumers buy. The combination of images in the media, publicity around the benefits and risks of certain foods, and the emphasis on dieting and healthy eating in today’s society contribute to what constitutes normal eating in t oday. Young girls begin controlling their weight from an early age (Bordo, 1993: 99) as a result of media images, and the normalization of dieting means that young girls view dieting as a good tool for weight loss (Fulcher & Scott, 2007: 307). Therefore, we can argue that images of femininity in the media and the emphasis on maintaining a slim figure contribute to the eating habits of the general public, especially women. In addition to this, negative publicity surrounding particular food produce can result in reduced consumption of certain products which highlights the media’s influence on an individual’s food choices.

Battle of the Bands Discussion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Battle of the Bands Discussion - Essay Example Giovanni Gabrieli was the more outstanding in relation to his composition as compared to Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina. Giovanni Gabrieli was born in Venice in a family of five children. After listening to various tunes from the three composers, he stood out as the most entertaining: To begin with, his focused mostly on composition on a variety of sacred composition as well as sacred instrumental music. His unique style of composition which was Baroque was quickly emulated in other parts of Europe. Listening to one of his Baroque composition entails the use of dynamic and specifically noted instruments. His tunes, for example the sonata pian’ e forte; indicate a higher sense of sonority exploitation giving it a maximum effect as compared to Pierluigi’s tunes. In relation to classical musical composition, Antonio Vilvadi born in 1678 stands out in relation to entertaining tunes and the dynamics of composition as compared Johann Sebastian Bach. To begin with, he is a master of and sacred choral composition. Listening to one of his compositions, â€Å"La Primavera†, various musical dynamics are evident: The first dynamic is ascribed to that fact that this composition sounds innovative. Moreover, this composition also creates a sense of brightness and a unique rhythmic structure hence creating a feeling of harmonic contrast. These features are not evident in Bach’s composition. Romantic musical compositions also attracted large numbers of listeners throughout the world. During the renaissance period, there were two major Romantic musical composers, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Ludwig Van Beethoven. However, Mozart’s romantic musical composition stands out more than Beethoven. Listening to one of his symphonies, Symphony No. 25 in G Minor, a romantic composition, a variety of unique features, which are not evident in Beethoven’s romantic composition are: Existence of clarity of various musical instruments as well

One Flew Over the Cuckoos Nest Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

One Flew Over the Cuckoos Nest - Essay Example He manages to convince some patients, however, in the end, McMurphy’s attempts prove futile. Despite the unsuccessful attempt to escape, McMurphy’s actions produce alternate favorable outcomes. Therefore, discussed below, are the reasons why McMurphy chose not to escape, his gift to fellow patients, and, the influence both parties had on each other. Despite having a flawless escape plan, McMurphy chose not to go through with it for the following reasons. Firstly, McMurphy realized that he would leave some of his helpless friends behind if he followed through on the escape plan, for example, Billy who did not consider himself as being ready to leave the hospital. McMurphy, therefore, feared that the progress made during his stay inside the mental institution would be destroyed by his departure. As a result, none of the patients would have the courage to take charge of their lives leading to self-recovery. Secondly, the drugs prescribed to the patients when mixed with alc ohol made it physically impossible for patients to follow through with their escape plans. Therefore, McMurphy could not leave some of his new friends behind especially because of the incapacitated state in which they were in. Thirdly, McMurphy understood that Nurse Ratched would inflict further harm on the patients left behind if his plans to escape materialized. He came to this conclusion, after thinking about Ratched’s behavior towards those who displeased or disagreed with her. He did not want to leave his friends vulnerable when questioned about his whereabouts. McMurphy symbolizes hope for the patients locked away under the harsh, inhumane treatment within the mental institution. Therefore, he bestows hope on his fellow patients who are in a state of hopelessness because of the inhumane treatment they undergo under the directives of Ratched. Before McMurphy’s arrival, nobody dared to question Ratched because of the repercussions that would ensue. Therefore, McMur phy’s courage to challenge Ratched worked to strengthen other patients resolve. The patients realized Nurse Ratched’s ploys held no power over their ability to recover and return to the outside world. The fact that McMurphy did not abandon his fellow patients by following through on his escape plans reflected McMurphy’s genuine concern for his friends. This helped to reassure other patients that they are worthy of love and genuine affection and that people still care for them despite their mental afflictions. The fact that, Nurse Ratched and her colleagues, including Chief Bromden, result to performing a lobotomy on McMurphy shows that they felt threatened by the impact he had on his fellow patients. McMurphy changed his fellow patients by making them realize that they had it in them to get better and return to normal. This occurred by taking up the role of the leader amongst his counterparts and rebelled against Nurse Ratched’s harsh treatment. This made other patients realize that they could take control over their lives. In addition, this allowed the patients to understand that they all individually possessed the capacity to influence the direction of their recovery process. For example, Billy managed to speak without a stutter after a successful sexual encounter with Candy during the execution phase of the escape plan. Despite Billy’s achievement abruptly coming to an end after Nurse Ratched threatened to expose him to his

Popular Culture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

Popular Culture - Essay Example In particular, many advertisements connote popular culture adopted by communities across the globe. The advert â€Å"Every Woman Wants A Bailey Box†, consisting of two modern women fighting over a Bailey product represents the place of women in popular culture. This essay will analyze the advert by applying storytelling method, gender and sexuality method and finally discussing a source related to the advert. In summarizing the â€Å"Every Woman Wants A Bailey Box† advert, it is possible to draw several aspects that represent popular culture in the community. The advert consists of two contemporary women fighting over a baileys product. Several aspects in the advert indicate that the women represent the modern society. The dressing codes used by both women in the advert indicate modern culture. One woman is dressed using a shorter dress that is mostly used by youthful women in different parts of the world. The second woman is dressed up using an outfit that perfectly fi ts in her body, an outfit that is popular among youthful and classy women. In addition, both women in the advert are groomed using high heeled shoes, which are trendy among classy women in the society. Further, the advert portrays a Bailey product being wrapped using a gift box, something that is commonly associated with women because the majority of women in the society like to receive gifts. Finally, the advert includes a picture of beautiful jewelry indicating that Bailey’s Fine Jewelry is capable of producing quality and attractive products for women in the society. This print medium used in the â€Å"Every Woman Wants A Bailey Box† advert has several primary strengths that make the advert to be successful in attracting the target segment to purchase Bailey’s Jewelry. To start with, the advert incorporates emotional appeals that play an important role in attracting the target audience.  

Marketing communication plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Marketing communication plan - Essay Example personal selection in the premium brand market (Pride and Ferrell, 2006) and this has been affecting the external, internal and competitor business contexts. Fuel price continues to increase and it always tends to impact the business opportunities of car manufacturers. However, it opens up new marketing opportunities for BMW hybrid and hydrogen cars since consumers tend to increasingly shift towards cheaper fuel types. Annual Report (2013) states that the hybrid technology, along with its focus on increasing electrification, helps the company take a leading role in lowering of carbon emissions and fuel consumption. An effective marketing communication will certainly help BMW to attract millions of customers worldwide to its cars. There is growing interest towards ‘green’ products that cause no harm or relatively less harm to human health and his nature. People are becoming more concerned about green products (Soni, 2013). As consumers are more aware about negative impacts of air pollution caused by vehicles, they show interest towards green vehicles. It seems to be an opportunity for BMW cars for its hybrid and hydrogen cars. In 2013, the number of passenger cars and light commercial vehicles sold globally has been increased by 5.1 percent to reach to 76.5 million units, mainly driven by increased demands in USA and China (Annual Report, 2013). In UK, the car market has remained in good shape, being boosted by a surprisingly strong economic recovery. The UK car market grew by 10.8 percent to reach 2.3 million units of cars and light vehicles. This showed greater opportunity for BMW mainly for its highly differentiated cars. In order to exploit this emerging market opportunities, the marketing team of BMW will need to communicate regarding its product variants and unique value propositions it offers to its targeted audiences. It is undeniably accepted that BMW is a strong brand as its appeal has created a sense of uniqueness among marketing channel members

Laboratory Report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Laboratory Report - Essay Example Question 4: In this example of the elbow flexion unloading response (i.e. the task performed during the laboratory), state the muscle from which the data from sheet 1 was recorded, and whether the weight was removed unexpectedly or was self-removed by the subject. What was the latency of the response Answer: The data from sheet 1 showed the elbow flexion unloading response of the biceps. The weight was self- removed as we observed the reduced EMG activity of the biceps, starting before the onset of the unloading. The latency time is about 50 milliseconds. Question 5: Based on evidence from the laboratory and/or the literature, explain the major reflex pathway that causes the reduction in agonist EMG in the unexpected unloading response. Include the series of neural events from just prior to the release of the weight until the end of the first agonist (biceps) response. Answer: Anticipation in the postural domain is an example of the ability of the CNS to predict the consequence of the mechanical effect of movement on posture and helps minimize a forthcoming disturbance. A classical example was provided by the pioneer work of Belenkiy et al. (1967). They showed that, during arm raising while standing, the prime mover activity in the biceps brachii was preceded by an activation of a leg muscle, the biceps femoris, starting 100 ms before the movement onset.

Leadership in context 3 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Leadership in context 3 - Essay Example The survey includes open ended questions about the employee’s goals and interests as well as a check-list in which the employee rank-orders according to the one that has greater value (J.B. Guerrero 2006). According to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, people lack needs they want and this therefore produces the drive and desire which motivates us to satisfy that need (A. Maslow 1943). People have to satisfy the initial needs before they can move to the next level of needs. For example one cannot try to satisfy their self-realization needs before they have satisfied their security needs. Communication is very important in motivation. Ensure that your employees understand the company’s vision, mission and values, its goals and what is expected of the employees to achieve their goals and overall goals of the organization. The goals of the employees and those of the company should be aligned. When employees understand the goals of the organization, they are motivated and will work towards achieving the same. To be able to establish if they understand, ask questions and this can be achieved through questionnaires (S. Chandler and S. Richardson 2008). Leaders build the team spirit by shared vision (Richard Brandson). Lead by example is another way to motivate. When you walk the talk your employees will have confidence in what you tell them to do. They will not do what you have told them to do if you yourself are not or cannot do it (S. Chandler and S. Richardson 2008). For example if you ask them to put in extra time, you should be there to support them. Have a positive attitude. When you are positive, your employees will feel motivated and will work towards success. When you have a negative attitude it translates to failure and dissatisfaction in the work place. For examples, if issues arise during the course of performing your duties, use phrases like ‘for this to work we need to sort out the following issues’ as opposed to saying

West Jet Case Study Essay Example for Free

West Jet Case Study Essay Strengths The greatest strength of WestJet is their brand image. Through their superior customer service, WestJet has become one of the most trusted brands as well as Canada’s preferred airline. (Anonymous, 2011), (marketing weekly news, 2012) One of the most important strengths of WestJet is their ability to provide low fares to consumers because of their low cost structure. (Yannopoulos, 2011) A key strength for WestJet has been the ability to achieve success through a great corporate culture, and using Strategic hiring, training, and rewarding service oriented employees. They understand the importance of top-down commitment by management. (Karp, 2011), (Ostrower, 2012), (Carr, 2011) Weaknesses By only having one size of airplane, WestJet is restricted to number of flight destinations. Consumers may find alternative options such as flying from the United States of America. (Sherlock,2012) Another drawback of having one size of airplanes limits the capacity of flyers. (Karp, 2012) Opportunities There will always be a reason for people to fly whether it’s for business or pleasure and they will always look for the lowest possible cost. In fact WestJet is actually seeing fewer empty seats. (The Ottawa Citizen, 2012) Increase international growth by acquiring more Code sharing partners. (Sorensen, 2010), (Transportation Business Journal, 2012) By agreeing with Bombardier to include smaller turboprop airplane WestJet can expand into smaller domestic markets without the risk of having to increase fees. (Ostrower, 2012), (Cameron, 2012), (David, 2012) Threats With Air Canada not performing so well, the Canadian government might allow foreign up-starts into the market. (Sorensen, 2012) Surface transportation (automobiles, buses, rail transportation) could take away customers for short-haul trips. A recession might slow the amount of people travelling. (Deveau, 2011) Price of oil could increase fees. (Cameron, 2012), (Deveau, 2011) Bad weather could prevent travel to certain destination. Issues Analysis 1. WestJet has been in the industry for over 15 years and has built its reputation giving customers great value by offering low fares with exceptional customer service. 2. Face competition from Air Canada and surface transportation services. 3. With only three kinds of airplane, maintenance cost remain low but WestJet can only offer economy class and can only fly to limited destinations. 4. Even though Air Canada is the leader in this market, WestJet is the favorite among flyers because of their superior customer service and added features (i.e. Seatback TVs, Web check-in, more legroom, etc) Recommended Alternatives I suggest that WestJet go after the business traveler because this segment spends a lot of money and has a high frequency of flying. However, it should not ignore the seasonal or occasional traveler because this is the segment does contribute to the growth of the company and has helped West Jet reach the level it’s at right now. Product: * Air service to 76 destinations in Canada, the United States, Mexico, and the Caribbean. (PR Newswire Association, 2012) * Increase the size of their aircraft and add other international destinations such as cities in Europe and Asia. (Transportation Business Journal, 2012) * Expand to other domestic markets that have not been reached. (Ostrower, 2012) Place: * Online * Travel Agencies Price: * Prices vary depending season, destination, and amount of seats left on the airplane * Domestic Flight (ex. Toronto to Montreal) $155 $200 * Domestic Flight (ex. Toronto to Vancouver) $400 $500 * US Flight (ex. Toronto to Orlando) $175 $400 * Sun Destination (ex Toronto to Kingston, Jamaica) $250 $500 (All prices are quoted for the summer of 2012 through westjet.com) Promotion: * Online * TV * Radio * Billboards * Sponsorship * Loyalty or Rewards programs such WestJet Dollars. (Cropp, 2012), (Braidwood, 2012) Selection of the best Alternatives Product: West Jet should try to increase their market share by getting into the smaller domestic markets. With the agreement with Bombardier to introduce a new set of smaller turboprops (propeller planes) that consumes less fuel and seats a lower amount of passengers is a great fit. This will help West Jet to keep their operating cost low and should keep fares low for the consumers as well. Place: Web booking and travel agencies are the best places to book a flight. Online gives the consumer convenience booking while travel agencies are good for those who prefer to speak a person and/or are uncomfortable booking online. Price: As mentioned above, prices do vary depending season, destination, and amount of seats left on the airplane. With the new smaller turboprops, West Jet should be able to maintain their low fares versus their competition. Promotion: With most people booking flights online, the best promotions should be right on the WestJet.com so that they can help drive traffic to their website. In addition, have special deals emailed to current base of customers or those who book a flight with WestJet. Conclusion I believe the greatest advantage that WestJet has is a positive image from both consumers and employees, they kind of go hand in hand. Because WestJet has great incentive program for their employees, it helps drive home the idea that great customer service is number one. When your front line workers (the ones that have the most interaction with your customers) are treated well and are recognized for their hard work, the company and customer both win. I think their model of low operating costs, between smaller hubs, with only one kind of airplane was a great strategy to get them where they are now. However, I can in vision in the next 10-15 years WestJet stepping up to include a larger airplane that can travel into more foreign destinations because long-haul flights generate the most amount of money. Work Cited Canadas most trusted brands in 2011. (2011). Marketing, 116(6), 17-21. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/920212383?accountid=3455 Yannopoulos, P. (2011). Defensive and offensive strategies for market success. International Journal of Business and Social Science, 2(13), n/a. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/904511236?accountid=3455 Karp, A. (2011). WestJets VALUE PROPOSITION. Air Transport World, 48(1), 46-50. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/839037396?accountid=3455 Ostrower, J. (2012, May 02). Bombardier wins WestJet order for turboprop planes. Wall Street Journal (Online), pp. n/a-n/a. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1010422700?accountid=3455 WestJet; WestJet is canadas preferred airline. (2012). Marketing Weekly News, , 1282. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/964463239?accountid=3455 Sorensen, C. (2010, May 31). READY FOR TAKEOFF: WestJets big plans to conqure air canada and then the world. Macleans, 123, 35-35. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/757889199?accountid=3455 Carr, D. F. (2011). Westjet cuts costs with crowdsourcing. Informationweek Online, , n/a. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/896003391?accountid=3455 WestJet ranks globally as a top 10 airline. (2012, Jul 10). Canada NewsWire, pp. n/a. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1024241175?accountid=3455 Cameron, D., Pearson, D. (2012, Jul 09). Propeller planes, fueled by economics, take off; at current oil prices, props make more sense for carriers than smaller jets. Wall Street Journal (Online), pp. n/a-n/a. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1024003999?accountid=3455 Sherlock, T. (2012, Jun 18). Millions of canadians flying out of U.S. airports. The Vancouver Sun, pp. A.1. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1021240152?accountid=3455 Airlines, aviation; WestJet and korean air launch code-share agreement. (2012). Transportation Business Journal, , 109. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1015618972?accountid=3455 Deveau, S. (2011, Jan 20). Analysts split on investment merits of air canada vs. WestJet; labour talks ahead. National Post, pp. FP.14. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/846811799?accountid=3455 Canada; fewer empty seats at WestJet, air canada. (2012, Jul 06). The Ottawa Citizen, pp. E.3. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1024045691?accountid=3455

Financial Ratio Analysis And Industry Averages Finance Essay

Financial Ratio Analysis And Industry Averages Finance Essay The price earning P/E ratio shows how attractive a firms stock is for investment. The P/E of Etisalat has increased from previous year 2009 which shows that in 2010 Etisalat has become more attractive for investments. Profitability Ratios Return on Common Equity (ROCE or ROE) ROE = Earnings after Tax à · Equity Shareholders fund x 100 This ratio shows the rate of return of the risk takers also referred to as the stockholders (Sinha, 2009). The ratio shows the stockholders or investors the rate of return of their investments in stocks of Etisalat. The following table shows the ROE ratio for Etisalat: Financial Ratios 2010 2009 Profitability ROE 20.41 22.17 The above table clearly shows that the rate of return for the shareholders of Etisalat has reduced from 22.17% in 2009 to 20.41% in 2010. Therefore the risk of investment in stocks of Etisalat has increased in 2010 comparing with the ratio of 2009. ROA (Return on Total Assets) Return on Total Assets (ROA) = (Net Income à · Total Assets) x 100 Higher ROA indicates the higher return on Assets, this ratio must be above the industry average to show greater returns on Assets (Brigham Houston, 2009). Note: another reason for a low ROA could also indicate the intentional use of debt for financing activities of a firm. The following table shows the ROA calculated for Etisalat. Financial Ratios 2010 2009 Profitability ROA 9.74 12.40 The ROA for Etisalat has reduced in 2010 to 9.74% from 12.40% in 2009, which shows the reduced rate of return on assets, indicating the poor performance of Etisalat also showing the use of debt by the firm. Liquidity Ratios: Current ratio Current Ratio = Current Assets à · Current Liabilities The ratio shows the weak or stronger liquidity position of a firm, higher the current liabilities lower the current ratio and vice versa. The calculated ratios of Etisalat are shown in the following table: Financial Ratios 2010 2009 Liquidity Current Ratio 0.79 0.83 The liquidity position of Etisalat has reduce negatively when comparing current ratio of 0.79x in 2010 with 0.83x in 2009, consequently the ability of Etisalat to convert its assets into cash has reduced. Quick Ratio Quick, or acid test, ratio = (Current assets Inventories) à · Current Liabilities Quick Ratio also depicts the liquidity position of the firm to pay off short-term liabilities without relying on sales (inventories). The following table shows the calculated Quick Ratio for Etisalat. Financial Ratios 2010 2009 Liquidity Quick Ratio 0.78 0.82 Acid test of Etisalat revealed that the liquidity of the firm to pay shot-term liabilities has reduced from 0.82x in 2009 to 0.78x in 2010. Asset Management Ratios Inventory Turnover Ratio Inventory Turnover Ratio = Sales à · Inventories This ratio shows the number of times inventories are turned over into sales, and higher value shows that the inventories are being held for longer times. The Inventory turnover ratio of Etisalat is shown by the following table. Financial Ratios 2010 2009 Asset Management Inventory Turnover Ratio 100.96 115.03 The ratios in the table clearly show the ability of Etisalat to convert inventories into sales has increased shown by declining Inventory Turnover Ratio of 100.96x in 2010 from 115.03x in 2009. Debt Management Ratios Total Debt to Total Assets Debt ratio = Total Debt à · Total Assets This ratio shows in percentage the risk level faced by the firm, the debt ratio of Etisalat is shown with the help of following table: Financial Ratios 2010 2009 Debt Management Total Debt to Total Assets Ratio 6.34 4.52 The values in the table above show that the risk of investing in Etisalat has increased from 4.52% in 2009 to 6.34% in 2010. Financial Profile Emirates Integrated Telecommunications Company PJSC and its Subsidiary The financial profile of Emirates Telecommunication is presented by the data retrieved from financial statements of the firm. Financial Ratio Analysis Emirates Integrated Telecommunications Company PJSC and its Subsidiary 2010 and 2009 Data retrieved from the Financial Statements 2010 2009 AED000 AED000 Current Assets 4,671,779 2,224,887 Total Assets 12,519,678 9,531,905 Current Liabilities 6,441,462 3,676,842 Total Liabilities 7,423,911 6,740,365 Inventories 47,300 38,931 Sales Revenue 7,074,097 5,338,699 Interest 102,199 12,998 EPS AED 0.31 AED 0.06 N.I. 1,310,431 264,124 Market Value Per Share AED 2.72 AED 2.79 Total Shareholder Equity 5,095,767 2,791,540 Total Debt 904,735 3,000,000 The ratio analysis is conducted on the basis of data retrieved in the table bove. Ratio Analysis of Emirates Integrated Telecommunications Company PJSC and its Subsidiary: Market Value Ratios: P/E Ratio (P/E) Price/Earnings Ratio = Market Price Per Common Share à · Earnings Per Share The share price of Emirates Integrated Telecommunications for the year ended 31 December, 2009 was AED 2.786 and 31 December, 2010 AED 2.72 (Bloomberg, 2013). The following table shows the calculated P/E for Etisalat. Financial Ratios 2010 2009 Market Value P/E 8.77 46.43 The price earning P/E ratio shows how attractive a firms stock is for investment. The P/E of Emirates Telecommunication has reduced drastically from previous year 46.43x in 2009 to 8.77x in 2010 which shows that in 2010 Emirates Telecommunication has become less attractive for investments. Profitability Ratios Return on Common Equity (ROCE or ROE) ROE = Earnings after Tax à · Equity Shareholders fund x 100 This ratio shows the stockholders or investors the rate of return of their investments in stocks of Emirates Telecommunication. The following table shows the ROE ratio for Emirates Telecommunication: Financial Ratios 2010 2009 Profitability ROE 25.72 9.46 The above table clearly shows that the rate of return for the shareholders of Emirates Telecommunication has increased from 9.46% in 2009 to 25.72% in 2010. Therefore the risk of investment in stocks of Emirates has reduced in 2010 comparing with the ratio of 2009. ROA (Return on Total Assets) Return on Total Assets (ROA) = (Net Income à · Total Assets) x 100 The following table shows the ROA calculated for Emirates Telecommunication. Financial Ratios 2010 2009 Profitability ROA 10.47 2.77 The ROA for Emirates Telecommunication has increased in 2010 to 10.47% from 2.77% in 2009, which shows the increased rate of return on assets. Liquidity Ratios: Current ratio Current Ratio = Current Assets à · Current Liabilities The calculated current ratio for Emirates Telecommunication are shown in the following table: Financial Ratios 2010 2009 Liquidity Current Ratio 0.73 0.61 The liquidity position of Emirates Telecommunication has reduce negatively when comparing current ratio of 0.73x in 2010 with 0.61x in 2009, consequently the ability of Emirates Telecommunication to convert its assets into cash has reduced. Quick Ratio Quick, or acid test, ratio = (Current assets Inventories) à · Current Liabilities The following table shows the calculated Quick Ratio for Emirates Telecommunication. Financial Ratios 2010 2009 Liquidity Quick Ratio 0.72 0.59 Acid test of Emirates Telecommunication revealed that the liquidity position of the firm to pay shot-term liabilities has increased from 0.59x in 2009 to 0.72x in 2010, which shows that Emirates Telecommunication is more liquid in 2010. Asset Management Ratios Inventory Turnover Ratio Inventory Turnover Ratio = Sales à · Inventories The Inventory turnover ratio of Emirates Telecommunication is shown by the following table. Financial Ratios 2010 2009 Asset Management Inventory Turnover Ratio 149.56 137.13 The ratios in the table clearly show the ability of Emirates Telecommunication to convert inventories into sales has decreased shown by increasing Inventory Turnover Ratio of 149.56x in 2010 from 137.13x in 2009. Debt Management Ratios Total Debt to Total Assets Debt ratio = Total Debt à · Total Assets The debt ratio of Emirates Telecommunication is shown with the help of following table: Financial Ratios 2010 2009 Debt Management Total Debt to Total Assets Ratio 0.07 0.31 The values in the table above show that the risk of investing in Emirates Telecommunication has reduced from 0.31% in 2009 to 0.07% in 2010. Industry Averages in Telecommunication Industry UAE The industry averages of the telecommunication for P/E, ROE, ROA, Debt Ratio and Current Ratio are: P/E P/E Industry Average Telecommunication Industry UAE 2009 2010 P/E Etisalat 9.69 10.31 P/E Emirates 46.43 8.77 2009 2010 P/E Industry Average 28.06 9.54 ROE ROE 2009 2010 Etisalat 22.17 20.41 Emirates 9.46 25.72 2009 2010 ROE Industry Average 15.815 23.065 ROA ROA 2009 2010 Etisalat 12.4 9.74 Emirates 2.77 10.47 2009 2010 ROA Industry Average 7.585 10.105 Debt Ratio Debt Ratio 2009 2010 Etisalat 4.52 6.34 Emirates 0.31 0.07 2009 2010 Industry Average 2.415 3.205 Current Ratio Current Ratio 2009 2010 Etisalat 0.83 0.79 Emirates 0.61 0.73 2009 2010 Industry Average 0.72 0.76

The American Dream: A Can of Coke and a Lexus :: Argumentative Argument Media Papers

The American Dream: A Can of Coke and a Lexus Following the crowd in 2001 is the American way. Our lives have been infected with directions on who, how, and what we should be and do. Every day our televisions blare out talk shows, sitcoms, and soap operas to stagnate our minds. Our radios scream obscenities and false hopes with a beat that permeates our thoughts. Magazines, newspapers, billboards, televisions, and radios continually tell us what we need and want. Fashion dictates the way we dress, what styles we wear, and even the food we eat. We must follow rigid exercise routines in expensive gymnasiums, drive only the best automobiles, and buy only certain brands of products for our families to consume. The media constantly inundates our subconscious with messages that instruct us how to behave, what to say, and gives directions on what is necessary to be accepted in the elite privileged society that we perceive to be the American dream. This is the education we get from the world around us. Where has this propaganda come from? Why are we not able to see the forest for the trees? Why do we accept all that is handed to us without questioning the motives? We have been led to believe that â€Å"they† are always right. We have been taught to fear our own judgment, to accept life without question. Such programming begins at birth, is exemplified by our elementary education, and snowballs as we continue to learn. We are a society of sheep, waiting for slaughter. Paulo Freire describes this kind of education in his essay â€Å"The Banking Concept of Education† as: Education thus becomes an act of depositing, in which the students are the depositories, and the teacher is the depositor. Instead of communicating, the teacher issues communiquà ©s and makes deposits which the students patiently receive, memorize, and repeat. This is the â€Å"banking† concept of education, in which the scope of action allowed to the students extends only as far as receiving, filing, and storing the deposits. (349) Schooling in American society has become a process of transferring a pre-arranged amount of information to our children. It begins around age five and continues through the late teens, or until the students have successfully completed the courses required of them. Teachers force-feed a curriculum determined by the state, the county school board, and the school itself.

Freedom and Independence for Women in the 1950s Essay -- Exploratory

Freedom and Independence for Women in the 1950's Having invested 27 million dollars and eleven years of research, Du Pont de Nemours Inc. roused world-wide interest when the company displayed the first ever nylon stockings in the New York World Fair in 1938. Nylon apparel, including women's lingerie and foundation garments, soon appeared on the American market in wide varieties. Unfortunately, the quantities were limited. Women paid deathly high pre-war prices to obtain a pair of these famous nylons; they quickly became a symbol of status and wealth (Ewing, 111). Its heyday, however, was brief, for in February 1942, America's nylon literally went to war with the soldiers, and nylon stockings temporarily became extinct. Post-war attitudes toward nylons and other underwear drastically differed from those of the pre-war. This 1952 Du Pont Nylon ad coincides with this change. The advertisement indicates not only the remaining post-war patriotic sentiments, but also the progress women made since the 1930's in obtaining more freedom, ind ependence, and simplified lifestyle. The 1950's encompassed a spirit that rallied around the American cause. It was fashionable to be patriotic, and Du Pont utilized manipulation of color to suggest that wearing Du Pont nylons is indeed patriotic. No other colors exist than red, white, and blue -- from the white boat to the blue high heels, patriotism is painted all over the ad. The two characters in the ad support the American cause by supporting the nylon company. Wouldn't you? This effective advertising technique guilted many women into buying Du Pont Nylons. Before the war, women stayed home to take care of the family, but the war forced many to go to work. Women finally tasted the sweet... ...s. The introduction of nylon and of the mass-production methods that were stimulated by the rising demand for what now became a machine-made article progressively led to simpler and more functional lifestyles (Ewing 1 1 7). This fabric could be rinsed out and drip-dried in an hour or two with no need of ironing. The woman in the ad has no time for laborious tasks that come along with complicated clothing: she has people to see, things to do, and new areas to conquer. As you women put on your favorite pair of fish net nylons, consider the changes the post-war women made to allow you that freedom and independence. Though women were suppressed in many ways during the 1950's, they were able to gain many rights which progressed women along the road towards the rights we enjoy today. Works Cited Ewing, Elizabeth. Underwear, a History. Theater Art Books, 1972.

Free Essays - An Analysis of Catch 22 :: Catch-22

An Analysis of Catch 22      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Catch 22, by Joseph Heller, is a critique of the society that we live in. Whoever is proud of what we have advanced to, and is unwilling to look at it in a negative light, would find this book very subversive. It threatens and criticizes the way of living of most who pride themselves in living a modern life. Heller shows through the ridiculousness of war how misguided much of modern society has become, in spite of all our so called civilized advancement. Some will find this interesting, thought provoking and enjoy this book. Others will take it as a direct threat and insult to all the work they have done.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   From the very beginning, Heller shows some of the most popular ideas and values of the day in a negative, questioning light. In particular, he shows the negative consequences of conformity and highlights individuality as a way to survive.   He wants us to recognize how one is controlled and stifled by society.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The leading character in this novel, addressing what has gone wrong with society, is Yossarian. He is the only one who recognizes the full craziness of what everyone is living for: wealth, false happiness, society's approval, etc. He is one of the few who tries to fight the power and elitism that have become so sought after in America. Throughout the novel, he tries to find a way to live a fuller life as a real human individual. He looks to many of the other characters in the book for help but only finds unsatisfactory answers.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Each of the characters in Yossarian's life at the base shows the reader one more example of how bad society has become. Clavinger tries to live life by reasoning. He looks for a reason in everything. In constantly looking for a reason why, he never enjoys life to it fullest. As further proof that this life leads nowhere, he is shot down and killed, certainly not an event with a rational explanation. Major Major is the person who obeys everyone, always trying to be perfect. He does everything that anyone asks of him, but takes it to an extreme. By being so naively obedient, instead of being helped by his comrades, he is shunned.

Dbq French and Indian War Essay

Before 1754, both the French and British had huge masses of land in America. Also sharing the land, was the natives, who were exceedingly nervous about the Englishmen taking away their land. This conflict eventually led to the French and Indian war, also known as the Seven Years war (1754-1763). The French and Indian war altered the political, economic, and ideological relations Britain and it’s American colonies in many ways where it ultimately led to the American Revolution because of the strain that was developed between them. The French and Indian war altered the political relations between Britain and it’s American colonies because of what happened before and after the French and Indian war. Before the war, the British had let colonists be and do whatever they wanted. But after the war, Britain had gained more land, as seen in Doc. A, and salutary neglect ended. This then brought up a feud on colonist’s representation in Parliament. To control the colonists, a British army was put in place that they told everyone was for their own protection from the Natives. The Proclamation Line was also executed, which was that a imaginary line that separated the colonists and the Natives(Doc. B). The British saw this a protection for the colonists, but it was actually just a negative for those saving up to buy land in new territory. Having the British soldiers guard the colonists from the natives became expensive, so the Quartering Act was put into place to make sure that every soldier would have a place to stay and then, the Restraining Act was enforced to make the colonist’s pay for the soldiers. This only enraged the colonists more because they were forced to house and support the enemy that was sent to take away their rights. All British relations in politics with the Americans were ruined because of acts put in place, causing the colonist’s to want to separate from Britain. The French and Indian war eventually slid the British back into a economic recession. They had to find a way to get their money back from the war. In Britain’s mind, the only logical place to get the money was from the American colonists because the money was technically spent on them, as seen in Doc. F. But The British was not expecting the hostile response from their Stamp Act and having to pay for the war damages. The colonists have never been taxed before, and they couldn’t understand why they had to pay without having representation for themselves. The Stamp Act really affected every colonist because they were forced to pay for every day items. The Stamp Act Congress sent appeals to Britain’s government to try to convince them of the insanity of the act, but the government was not going to change their mind(Doc. G). While going against the Stamp Act, the Colonists mocked the act by placing skulls in the place where the stamp on documents and letters would go(Doc. H). It was clear from the American response that they were not going to just give up and let the English tax them without a clear fight. Both the colonists and the British both had their different opinions, which created an even stronger strain between them, reeling in the American Revolution closer and closer. The ideological relations between the colonists and the British were undeniably a part of the developing strain after the French and Indian war. Before the war, North America was where the former England settlers went, and they still considered themselves as a part of their homeland(Doc. E), until the England government taxed the colonists and not their country as a whole(Doc. F). The colonists changed their ideology about staying loyal to their mother country because of this and slowly started to drift towards rebellion. The Natives also were about of the developing strain between the British and the colonists. The Natives were solely afraid that the British would take their land for farming, and they thought that the British people had no right to settle there(Doc. B). And then, after the Proclamation line was present, the military had come in to protect the colonists, but it is proven true that the armies were seen as scum (Doc. D). The American colonists just wanted equality and liberty from the British empire, but it was obvious that they weren’t going to get that because of the British taxes and not letting further settling in the other parts of the American land. Both of these contributions led to the colonists wanting to succeed from the British empire. The French and Indian war changed the political, economic, and the ideological relations between Britain and it’s American colonies because of the developing strain that eventually led to the American Revolution.

Public administration Essay

‘Ethics’ is a difficult term to define. The meaning, nature and scope of ethics have expanded in the course of time. ‘Ethics’ is integral to public administration. In public administration, ethics focuses on how the public administrator should question and reflect in order to be able to act responsibly. We cannot simply bifurcate the two by saying that ethics deals with morals and values, while public administration is about actions and decisions. Administering accountability and ethics is a difficult task. The 1 levels of ethics in governance are dependent on the social, economic, political, cultural, legal-judicial and historical contexts of the country. These specific factors influence ethics in public administrative systems. This Unit will discuss the meaning, evolution, foci and concerns of ethics. It will bring out the different dimensions of ethics and their relevance for public administration. The significance of an ethical code for administrators will be analysed and the nature of work ethics will be discussed. This Unit will also examine the obstacles to ethical accountability. 21. 2 ETHICS: MEANING AND RELEVANCE ‘Ethics’ is a system of accepted beliefs, mores and values, which influence human behaviour. More specifically, it is a system based on morals. Thus, ethics is the study of what is morally right, and what is not. The Latin origin of the word ‘ethics’ is ethicus that means character. Since the early 17th century, ‘ethics’ has been accepted as the â€Å"Science of morals; the rules of conduct, the science of human duty. † Hence, in common parlance, ethics is treated as moral principles that govern a person’s or a group’s behaviour. It includes both the science of the good and the nature of the right. The ethical concerns of governance have been underscored widely in Indian scriptures and other treatises such as Ramayana, Mahabharata, Bhagvad Gita, Buddha Charita, Arthashastra, Panchatantra, Manusmriti, Kural, Shukra Niti, Kadambari, Raja Tarangani, and Hitopadesh. At the same time, one cannot ignore the maxims on ethical governance provided by the Chinese philosophers such as Lao Tse, Confucius and Mencius. In the Western philosophy, there are three eminent schools of ethics. The first, inspired by Aristotle, holds that virtues (such as justice, charity and generosity) are dispositions to act in ways that benefit the possessor of these virtues and the society of which he is a part. The second, subscribed to mainly by Immanual Kant, makes the concept of duty central to morality: human beings are bound, from a knowledge of their duty as rational beings, to obey the categorical imperative to respect other rational beings with whom they interact. The third is the Utilitarian viewpoint that asserts that the guiding principle of conduct should be the greatest happiness (or benefit) of the greatest number (Hobson, 2002). The Western thought is full of ethical guidelines to rulers, whether in a monarchy or a democracy. These concerns are found in the writings of Plato, Aristotle, Thomas Jefferson, Alexander Hamilton, Thomas Penn, John Stuart Mill, Edmund Burke, and others. Rawl’s theory of justice revolves around the adaptation of two fundamental principles of justice, which would, in turn, guarantee a just and morally acceptable society. The first principle guarantees the right of each person to have the most extensive basic liberty compatible with liberty of others. The second principle states that social and economic positions are to be: (a) To everyone’s advantage, and (b) Open to all. A key issue for Rawls is to show how such principles would be universally adopted, and over here his work borders on general ethical issues. He introduces a theoretical ‘veil of ignorance’ in which all ‘players’ in the social game would be placed in a situation, which is called the ‘original position’. Having only a general knowledge about the facts of ‘life and society’ each player is to make a ‘rationally’ prudential choice concerning the kind of social institution they would enter into contract with. By denying the players any specific information about themselves it forces them to adopt a generalised point of view that bears a strong resemblance to the moral point of view. This view point revolves around moral conclusions can be reached without abandoning the prudential standpoint and posting a moral outlook merely by pursuing one’s own prudential reasoning under certain procedural bargaining. 2 The gist of wisdom on administrative ethics is that the public administrators are the â€Å"guardians† of the Administrative State. Hence, they are expected to honour public trust and not violate it. Two crucial questions raised in this context are â€Å"why should guardians be guarded? And â€Å"Who guards the guardian? † (Rosenbloom and Kravchuk, 2005). The administrators need to be guarded against their tendency to misconceive public interest, promote self-interest, indulge in corruption and cause subversion of national interest. And they need to be guarded by the external institutions such as the judiciary, legislature, political executive, media and civil society organisations. These various modes of control become instruments of accountability. 21. 3 EVOLUTION OF ETHICAL CONCERNS IN ADMINISTRATION It is essential to recognise that the discipline of Public Administration has been broadly influenced in the initial stages of its growth, by Political Science and the science of Management. While the philosophical premises of Public Administration were influenced primarily by Political Science, its technological facet was designed by Management Sciences. The early Political Science was taught as Moral Philosophy and Political Economy, while its current curriculum is the product of secular, practical, empirical and scientific tendencies of the past century. The American students of Political Science, in the early years of the last century, were dismayed at the inadequacies of the ethical approach in the Gilded Age. As a result of their interaction with the German universities and the influence on their thinking by scholars such as J. N Burgess, E. J. James, A. B Hart, A. L Lovell, and F. J Goodnow, they sought to recreate Political Science as a true science. They became increasingly interested in observing and analysing ‘actual governments’. Natural and Social Sciences substantially influenced their ideas and approaches. Later, Logical Positivism of the Austrian School influenced scholars such as Herbert Simon and thus there emerged a booming faith in developing a Science of Politics and a Science of Administration that would be able to `predict and control’ political and administrative life. As Dwight Waldo comments, the old belief that good government was the government of moral men was thus replaced by a morality that was irrelevant and that proper institutions and expert personnel were the determining factors in shaping good government. `The new amorality became almost a request for professional respect’. The eminence of Behaviouralism until the mid-1960s further marginalised the ethical issues in the study of Political Science and Public Administration. It was only after the advent of Post-behaviouralism in Political Science and of the accent on New Public Administration in Public Administration that the scientific methods of Behaviouralim and humanistic (read `ethical’) values struck a homogenous chord with administration and the dispute between facts and values was resolved substantially. The current discipline of public administration accords primacy to the `values’ of equity, justice, humanism, human rights, gender equality and compassion. The movement of Good Governance, initiated by the World Bank in 1992, lays stress, inter alia, on the ethical and moral conduct of administrators. While the New Public Management movement is more concerned with administrative effectiveness, the New Public Administration focuses on administrative ethics in its broader manifestation. Both the movements are complementary to each other. This complementarity of foci 3 is as truer today as it was a hundred years ago when the industrial world was experiencing the rise of Scientific Management amidst a strong acceptance of the notion of administrative responsibility. John Kennedy, during his Presidency (19611963) had averred: â€Å"No responsibility of government is more fundamental than the responsibility of maintaining the higher standards of ethical behaviour. The ideal-type construction of bureaucracy, propounded by Max Weber also highlighted an ethical imperative of bureaucratic behaviour. Weber (1947) observed: In the rational type, it is a matter of principle that the members of the administrative staff should be completely separated from ownership of the means of production and administration. Officials, employees and workers attached to the administrative staff do not themselves own the non-human means of production and administration†¦. These exists, furthermore, in principle complete separation of property belonging to the organisation, which is controlled within the sphere of office, and the personal property of the official, which is available for his own private uses†. Weber’s analysis underscores the need to prevent the misuse of an official position for personal gains. Although his ideal-type construct on bureaucracy is not empirical, yet it has an empirical flavour, for it appears to have taken into account the existential reality of bureaucratic behaviour. From a normative angle – knowing that Weber was not normative in his ideal type constructs – also, the message is clear: Don’t misuse official property for personal benefit. Most critics of real-world bureaucracies, including Harold Laski, Carl Friedrich, Victor Thompson and Warren Bennis, have criticised bureaucrats for violating the prescribed norms of moral conduct. Even Fred Riggs, while discussing the traits of a prismatic society like `formalism’ and ‘nepotism’ points out the yawning gap between the `ideal’ and the `real’ in administrative behaviour. The deviations from the norms and mores have been too glaring to be ignored. Immoral behaviour thus has become an integral component of `bureaupathology’ 21. 4 CONTEXT OF ETHICS AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE FOR PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION Ethics, whether in an entire society, or in a social sub-system, evolves over a long period of time and is influenced, during its nurturance and growth, by a variety of environmental factors. Administrative ethics is no different. It is the product of several contextual structures and it never ceases to grow and change. Let us now look at some of these contextual factors that influence ethics in the public administrative systems: The Historical Context The history of a country marks a great influence on the ethical character of the governance system. The Spoils System in the USA during the initial phase of the American nation vitiated the ethical milieu of the American Public Administration. â€Å"To victor belong the spoils† asserted American President Jackson. Things would have continued the same way had not a disgruntled job seeker assassinated President Garfield in 1881. Garfield’s assassination spurred the process of civil service reforms in the USA, and the setting up of the US. Civil Service Commission in 1883 was the first major step in this direction. India has witnessed a long history of unethical practices in the governance system. Kautilya’s Arthashastra mentions a variety of corrupt practices in which the administrators of those times indulged themselves. The Mughal Empire and the Indian princely rule were also afflicted with the corrupt practices of the courtiers and 4 administrative functionaries, with ‘bakashish’ being one of the accepted means of selling and buying favours. The East India Company too had its share of employees who were criticised even by the British parliamentarians for being corrupt. The forces of probity and immorality co-exist in all phases of human history. Which forces are stronger depends upon the support these get from the prime actors of politico-administrative system. What is disturbing is that a long legacy of unethical practices in governance is likely to enhance the tolerance level for administrative immorality. In most developing nations having a colonial history, the chasm between the people and the government continues to be wide. In the colonial era, the legitimacy of the governance was not accepted willingly by a majority of population and therefore, true loyalty to the rulers was a rare phenomenon. Although the distance between the governing elite and the citizens has been reduced substantially in the transformed democratic regimes, yet the affinity and trust between the two has not been total even in the new dispensation. Unfortunately, even the ruling elite does not seem to have imbibed the spirit of emotional unity with the citizens. The legacy of competitive collaboration between the people and the administrators continues to exist. The nature of this relationship has an adverse impact on ‘administrative ethics’. The Socio-cultural Context Values that permeate the social order in a society determine the nature of governance system. The Indian society today seems to prefer wealth to any other value. And in the process of generating wealth, the means-ends debate has been sidelined. Unfortunately, ends have gained supremacy and the means do not command an equal respect. A quest for wealth in itself is not bad. In fact, it is a mark of civilisational progress. What is important is the means employed while being engaged in this quest. We seem to be living in an economic or commercial society, where uni-dimensional growth of individuals seem to be accepted and even valued, where ends have been subdued by means, and ideals have been submerged under the weight of more practical concerns of economic progress. Can we change this social order? Mahatma Gandhi very much wanted to transform the priority-order of the Indian society, but there were hardly any takers or backers of his radical thinking that was steeped in a strong moral order. To put it bluntly, ever since Gandhi passed away, there has been not a single strong voice in independent India challenging the supremacy of ‘teleology and unidimensionalism’. Neither have our family values questioned this unilinear growth of society nor has our educational system made serious efforts to inject morality into the impressionable minds of our youth. We have starkly failed on these fronts. The need is to evolve fresh perspectives on what kind of the Indians we wish to evolve and how? Till then, efforts will have to be focused on the non-social fronts. The issues of morality may or may not be rooted in the religious ethos of a society. Indian religious scriptures do not favour pursuit of wealth through foul means. Interestingly, Thiru Valluvar’s Kural, written two thousand years ago in Tamil Nadu, emphasises that earning wealth brings fame, respect and an opportunity to help and serve others, but it should be earned through right means only. Can this dictum form the basis of our socio-moral orientation? The level of integrity among Protestants and Parsees is believed by some to be relatively higher when compared to other religions and one can find the roots of such integrity in the well-ingrained mores of these religions. Nevertheless, it is only one point of view, as there are several other religious and secular groups, which are known for their high moral conduct. The cultural system of a country, including its religious orientation, appears to have played a significant role in influencing the work ethics of its people. For instance, the stress on hard work, so characteristic of the Protestant ethics, has helped several Christian societies to enhance their per capita 5 productivity. While Judaism has valued performance of physical labour by its followers, the Hindu and Islamic societies, on the other hand, have generally considered physical labour to be of lower rank than the mental work. Work ethics may or may not be linked with religious moorings. These are subjective issues but make for an interesting study. The family system and the educational system are influential instruments of socialisation and training of the mind in its impressionable years. If the values inculcated through the family and the school have underscored honesty and ethics, the impact on the mind-set of citizens is likely to be highly positive and powerful. Legal-judicial Context The legal system of a country determines considerably the efficacy of the ethical concerns in governance system. A neatly formulated law, with a clear stress on the norms of fair conduct and honesty, is likely to distinguish chaff from grain in the ethical universe. Conversely, nebulous laws, with confusing definition of corruption and its explanations, will only promote corruption for it would not be able to instill the fear of God or fear of law among those violating the laws of the land and mores of the society. Besides, an efficient and effective judiciary with fast-track justice system will prove a roadblock to immorality in public affairs. Conversely, a slow-moving judiciary, with a concern for letter rather than the spirit of the law, will dither and delay and even help the perpetrators of crimes by giving them leeway through prolonged trials and benefits of doubt. Likewise, the anti-corruption machinery of the government, with its tangled web of complex procedures, unintendedly grants relief to the accused who are indirectly assisted by dilatory and knotty procedures. In India, there is hardly any effective anticorruption institution. As we have read in Unit 7 earlier on in this Course, the Lok Pal is yet to be established, Lok Ayuktas are feeble and toothless agencies, while the state vigilance bodies are low-key actors. The consequences are too obvious to warrant any explanation. The Political Context The political leadership, whether in power or outside the power-domain, is perhaps the single most potent influence on the mores and values of citizens. The rulers do rule the minds, but in a democracy particularly, all political parties, pressure groups and the media also influence the orientation and attitudes on moral questions. If politicians act as authentic examples of integrity, as happens in the Scandinavian countries, or as examples of gross self-interest, as found in most South Asian countries, the administrative system cannot remain immune to the levels of political morality. The election system in India is considered to be the biggest propeller to political corruption. Spending millions on the elections `compels’ a candidate to reimburse his expenses through fair or foul means – more foul than fair. While fair has limits, foul has none. It is generally argued that the administrative class – comprising civil servants at higher, middle as well as lower levels – emerges from the society itself. Naturally, therefore, the mores, values and behavioural patterns prevalent in the society are likely to be reflected in the conduct of administrators. To expect that the administrators will be insulated from the orientations and norms evidenced the in society would be grossly unrealistic. The argument, propounded here, has a convincing logic, yet there can be a counterpoint that the rulers are expected to possess stronger moral fibre than the subjects. Since there are hardly any instrumentalities to protect and nurture administrative 6 morality vis-a-vis the general social morality, such an expectation remains at the most an elusive ideal. Hence, there is an obvious need to go deeper into the problem. The behaviour of politicians has a demonstration effect on civil servants. Besides, the capacity of the less honest political masters to control civil servants is immense. It is ironical that the moral environment in a country like India is designed more by its politicians than by any other social group. The primacy of the political over the rest of systems is too obvious to be ignored. If the media is objective and fearless, its role in preventing corruption can be effective. It can even act as a catalyst to the promotion of ethical behaviour among administrators. Hence, those who own and manage the media should understand their wider social and moral responsibilities. The trend in this direction is visible now with many television channels regularly airing their ‘expose’ on malpractices in the system. This role of the media is important if performed with intent of social responsibility rather than sensationalism. The Economic Context The level of economic development of a country is likely to have a positive correlation with the level of ethics in the governance system. Even when a causal relation between the two is not envisaged, a correlation cannot be ruled out. A lower level of economic development, when accompanied with inequalities in the economic order, is likely to create a chasm among social classes and groups. The less privileged or more deprived sections of society may get tempted to forsake principles of honest conduct while fulfilling their basic needs of existence and security. Not that the rich will necessarily be more honest (though they can afford to be so), yet what is apprehended is that the poor, while making a living, may find it a compelling necessity to compromise with the principles of integrity. It is interesting to note that with the advent of liberalising economic regime in developing nations, there is a growing concern about following the norms of integrity in industry, trade, management and the governance system on account of the international pressures for higher level of integrity in the WTO regime. This is what Fred Riggs would call `exogenous’ inducements to administrative change. 21. 5 ISSUE OF ETHICS: FOCI AND CONCERNS An important question arises in connection with the moral obligation of an administrative system. Is the administrative system confined to acting morally in its conduct or does it also share the responsibility of protecting and promoting an ethical order in the larger society? While most of the focus on administrative morality is on the aspect of probity within the administrative system, there is a need to consider the issue of the responsibility of the governance system (of which the administrative system is an integral part) to create and sustain an ethical ambience in the socioeconomic system that would nurture and protect the basic moral values. Moral political philosophy assumes that the rulers will not only be moral themselves, but would also be the guardians of morality in a society. Truly, being moral is a prerequisite to being a guardian of wider morality. Both the obligations are intertwined. It is a truism that the crux of administrative morality is ethical decision-making. The questions of facts and values cannot be separated from ethical decision-making. Thus, the science of administration gets integrated with the ethics of administration. And in this integrated regime, only that empirical concern is valued, which respects the normative concerns in the delivery of administrative services. 7 Which are the essential concerns in regard to administrative ethics? There can be a long list of values that are considered desirable in an administrative action. However, in being selective, one has to focus on the most crucial values. Let us now concentrate on the values of justice, fairness and objectivity. Woodrow Wilson, â€Å"The Study of Administration† (1887), in his inaugural address averred that justice was more important than sympathy. Thus, he placed justice at the top of value-hierarchy in a governance system. Paradoxically, there has been a lot of discussion on the formallegal aspects of administrative law since then, but very little analysis has been made of the philosophical dimension of administrative justice. The other two issues of ethical decision-making, viz. fairness and objectivity are, in fact, integral components of administrative justice. When administrators are true to their profession, they are expected to be impartial and fair and not get influenced by nepotism, favoritism and greed while making decisions of governance. Objectivity should not be misconstrued as a mechanical and rigid adherence to laws and rules. From the decision-making angle, it has undoubtedly wider ramifications encompassing a set of positive orientations. Currently, the notion of ethics has expanded itself to involve all major realms of human existence. Let us attempt to outline certain salient aspects of ethics in public administration. Broadly, they could be summarised as following maxims: †¢ Maxim of Legality and Rationality: An administrator will follow the law and rules that are framed to govern and guide various categories of policies and decisions. Maxim of Responsibility and Accountability: An administrator would not hesitate to accept responsibility for his decision and actions. He would hold himself morally responsible for his actions and for the use of his discretion while making decisions. Moreover, he would be willing to be held accountable to higher authorities of governance and even to the people who are the ultimate beneficiaries of his decisions and actions. Maxim of Work Commitment: An administrator would be committed to his duties and perform his work with involvement, intelligence and dexterity. As Swami Vivekananda observed: â€Å"Every duty is holy and devotion to duty is the highest form of worship. † This would also entail a respect for time, punctuality and fulfillment of promises made. Work is considered not as a burden but as an opportunity to serve and constructively contribute to society. Maxim of Excellence: An administrator would ensure the highest standards of quality in administrative decisions and action and would not compromise with standards because of convenience or complacency. In a competitive international environment, an administrative system should faithfully adhere to the requisites of Total Quality Management. Maxim of Fusion: An administrator would rationally bring about a fusion of individual, organisational and social goals to help evolve unison of ideals and imbibe in his behaviour a commitment to such a fusion. In situation of conflicting goals, a concern for ethics should govern the choices made. Maxim of Responsiveness and Resilience: An administrator would respond effectively to the demands and challenges from the external as well as internal environment. He would adapt to environmental transformation and yet sustain the ethical norms of conduct. In situations of deviation from the prescribed ethical norms, the administrative system would show resilience and bounce back into the accepted ethical mould at the earliest opportunity. 8 †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Maxim of Utilitarianism: While making and implementing policies and decisions, an administrator will ensure that these lead to the greatest good (happiness, benefits) of the greatest number. Maxim of Compassion: An administrator, without violating the prescribed laws and rules, would demonstrate compassion for the poor, the disabled and the weak while using his discretion in making decisions. At least, he would not grant any benefits to the stronger section of society only because they are strong and would not deny the due consideration to the weak, despite their weakness. Maxim of National Interest: Though universalistic in orientation and liberal in outlook, a civil servant, while performing his duties, would keep in view the impact of his action on his nation’s strength and prestige. The Japanese, the Koreans, the Germans and the Chinese citizens (including civil servants), while performing their official roles, have at the back of their mind a concern and respect for their nation. This automatically raises the level of service rendered and the products delivered. Maxim of Justice: Those responsible for formulation and execution of policies and decisions of governance would ensure that respect is shown to the principles of equality, equity, fairness, impartiality and objectivity and no special favours are doled out on the criteria of status, position, power, gender, class, caste or wealth. Maxim of Transparency: An administrator will make decisions and implement them in a transparent manner so that those affected by the decisions and those who wish to evaluate their rationale, will be able to understand the reasons behind such decisions and the sources of information on which these decisions were made. Maxim of Integrity: An administrator would undertake an administrative action on the basis of honesty and not use his power, position and discretion to serve his personal interest and the illegitimate interests of other individuals or groups. †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ There could be many more tenets added to the above catalogue of maxims of morality in administration. However, the overall objective is to ensure ‘Good Governance’ with a prime concern for ethical principles, practices, orientations and behaviour. There are no dogmas involved in defining administrative ethics. The chief concern while doing so is the positive consequence of administrative action and not just ostensibly rational modes of administrative processes. In the following Section, a few of the salient concerns and foci of ethics are being dealt with briefly. 21. 6 PERTINENCE OF CODE OF ADMINISTRATIVE ETHICS. The concept of ethics has been a latecomer in the realm of public administration. For too long, doing one’s duty well was considered to be an equivalent of bureaucratic ethics. Interestingly, in the United States, the original city managers’ and federal code of ethics placed notable stress on efficiency as ethical concept. In the early 20th century, the perspective began to change. In 1924, the International City/Country Management Association adopted the public sector’s first code of ethics that reflected anti-corruption and anti-politics facets of the municipal reforms movement. 9. In 1958, the US Congress imposed a code of ethics on the Federal Government and in 1978, founded the Office of Government Ethics as an upshot of the Ethics in Government Act of 1978. In 1992, the Office of Government Ethics released the Federal Government’s first comprehensive set of standards of ethical conduct, comprising standards pertaining to gifts, conflicts of financial interest, impartiality, misuse of office, seeking outside employment, and outside activities. Almost all the American states have also promulgated their respective codes of ethics, though compared to the federal initiative, they are less comprehensive. Today, codes of ethics, ethics boards, and ethics training have been accepted as integral aspects of public administration in the U. S. Moreover, ethics education has also permeated the discipline of public administration. The National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and Public Administration has made ethics education a required component of a Public Administration Programme for its accreditation and has prescribed that all introductory text-books in public administration should include a discussion on ethics (Browman, Berman and West, 2001). Eminent professional associations of public administration also offer training programmes on ethical conduct for public managers. In India, there are a few training programmes on administrative ethics offered by the Indian Institute of Public Administration and other institutions for civil servants, but there is hardly any similar initiative taken up in the realm of education in Public Administration. The American Society for Public Administration (ASPA) had adopted in 1984 a Code of Ethics for its members (comprising intellectuals as well as practicing administrators). It was revised in 1994. Certain salient points of the ASPA’s Code of Ethics are as follows: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Exercise of discretionary authority to promote public interest Recognition and support to the public’s right to know the public business Exercise of compassion, benevolence, fairness and optimism Prevention of all forms of mismanagement of public funds by establishing and maintaining strong fiscal and management controls, by supporting audits and investigative activities Protection of Constitutional principles of equality, fairness, representativeness, responsiveness and due process in protecting citizens’ rights Maintenance of truthfulness and honesty and not to compromise them for advancement, honour, or personal gain Guarding zealously against conflict of interest or its appearance: e. g. nepotism, improper ou.

Reason, is the ability to use your thinking in order to form conclusions Essay

Reason, is the ability to use your thinking in order to form conclusions, inferences, or judgments. to use reason in order to so such things we need not only to think but also connect and make paths with the other ways of knowing and the mindful surrounds with the use of our senses like the article states. While trying to make conclusions, inferences or judgments we tend to search for courses that led to such behavior actions or outcomes. For example, we can take the idea of Sherlock homes whether he wanted to conclude about something he not only think about it but he actually search for the components who led to that. Then when he actually found the pieces of the puzzle he is able to conclude of make a judgment of any circumstance. For that reasons, we can say that in other to reach to conclusions and gain knowledge about them we firstly need to search for all the pieces and then put them together and conclude. Pursuing this further, reason on its can give us knowledge however, this information may not be as good and certain as when using all the components in order to reach to an ending. The article states that when actually observing the situations and using the mindful of the surroundings and using all the scenes in order to actually observe then, we are able to actually see what is behind the blanket and understand what we were actually searching for. Answers are easier when we actually search for them and find all the components that make one. If we tend to actually do into the conclusions we would never actually gain knowledge we most likely believe we are when we are not. In order to actually gain knowledge we need to search for it and use our perception emotion and language. In that moment we are able to gain knowledge the moment when we actually see the whole picture.

Death’s Arbitrary Empire †McManners Essay

On this day 220 years ago, a group of French insurgents stormed a national arms house, the Bastille, and set off the events of the French Revolution. This changed France forever, bringing an end to the monarchy that had dominated the political landscape for years, bringing about the Napoleonic period and ultimately, Democratic France that we see today. Perhaps the driving force behind the movement could be pointed at the period of oppression rained down on the French peasantry by the nobility in the 17th and 18th centuries. In a time period dominated by French excesses and lavish living by the nobility, most notably during the reign of the Sun King Louis XIV, more than 85% of the population was living in shackles of poverty. The social stratum was shaped like a pyramid with the wealthy elite occupying the top of the triangle. Most of the people spent their lives mired in the lowest level, and social movement was very unlikely. The richest members of this society had a 10-17 year life advantage over those who lived in extreme poverty. Economic prowess meant a better diet, better nutrition, and thus a better overall quality of life. Elite bourgeois dined on fine cheeses and meats and drank expensive bottles of wine from the Chateau region while peasants drank contaminated water and ate grain often harvested from diseased crops. Water for the peasants was often dug from shallow wells and poured through linen for sanitary purposes. Most French noblemen knew better, and kept a â€Å"wine-only† drinking policy. Diseased crops were fed to peasants in time of paucity, and often caused the deaths of many from diseases like tuberculosis and dysentery. Also, the more status and economic power one had, the more likely it was the patriarch would be able to carry out the family name. Peasants barely had children and when they did, 9 out of 10 did not live past the age of ten. Surgeons and midwives were often responsible for the mangling of a child at birth. Many mishandlings resulted from these early medical practitioners, leaving children maimed, humpbacked, or even worse, dead. Women were encouraged not to reproduce for the fear of the childbirth experience. The wealthy were able to hire the best of midwife and birthing assistants to see that their children were particularly cared for. Hospitals also became  breeding grounds for disease as all the children who made it through childbirth were kept in the same quarters oftentimes. Another perk of being of high society was that most likely, one would avoid the unsanitary conditions of the inner cities in the time period. Human excrement lined the streets and human corpses were often found put out with the trash. Crowded households jam-packed with many poor families often had corpses in beds the same day they were slept in later that night. These terribly unsanitary conditions lead to the massive spread of disease and the death once the disease overwhelmed an area. The center of every French town in the time period contained a cemetery, and they were certainly busy. Disease and â€Å"Death’s dark armies† lurked in the streets of Paris all the way out to the countryside. It was just a part of daily life in the 1600s and 1700s. Families could have 5 to 7 children buried at the local cemetery, none of which lived past the age of ten. Death was everywhere, and it was out of control due to the habits of the population. Feces lined the streets from Paris to even the gilded halls of Versailles. A very interesting point can be illustrated by the study of this time period. The terrible living conditions and disease and famine were directly brought about by the behavior of the French citizens. The modern concept of the â€Å"accident† in daily life – like a technology failure, mixed-up signal, etc. had not even been invented yet. Daily life was a free-for-all, with almost no rules governing the areas in which the peasants lived, and no one around to enforce them. Vagabonds littered the streets, begging or stealing anything they could find, and in turn, creating garbage and spreading disease. Until the French citizens got themselves under control, life would still continue to be a daily struggle for most. It is decidedly easy to be critical of the French’s plight in this time period. The population was directly responsible for the situation it was in, and the habits of people caused this disease and death ravaged atmosphere. However, the efforts of the early physicians, like the surgeons and  midwives, cannot be ignored for their attempts to reverse the spread of these terrible diseases and death plagues, no matter how in vain they were. A physician of the time period put it best when relating the cause of a disease in patients – a patient with an already poor base in nutrition was much more susceptible to disease and the resulting death. Although it has been proven in current third world countries that a small diet can maintain the nutritionally balanced body chemistry that might starve someone from America, these peasants lacked even the bare essentials for a diet. They lived mostly on bread and poor water, some cheese if they were lucky. The prescription for most di seases was hot meat stew, oftentimes not doing anything. Certainly the French citizens living in poverty needed to escape their terrible living situations, and eventually began to organize against the monarchy and nobility that had oppressed them for so many years. Groups inspired by the American triumph ten years before began to emerge promising a better life for the poor French, and the movements gained strength. A crowd of about one thousand French peasants were mobilized on July 14th, 1789, as they stormed the monarchy’s arms house, the Bastille. Seven prisoners were released, but the shockwaves from the event hit even the far reaches of the country, thus changing the French political landscape forever, as well as the rest of Western European history, and the effect on the increasingly connected world. Works Cited â€Å"Death’s Arbitrary Empire† By John McManners